Language and
Linguistics Vocabulary
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Last
Update: 12/13/02
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#$CommunicationConvention communication conventions
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of conventions used to encode and
interpret things which bear information; a syntax together
with a semantic mapping. Instances include natural languages
like French or English, database data formats, and computer
languages or idiosyncratic systems of gestures or symbols
known only by a small group of people.
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direct instance of:
#$TemporalStuffType
direct specialization of:
#$AbstractInformationalThing
direct generalization of: #$WritingSystem #$Language
#$Language languages
(communication conventions) (AIT)
A specialization of #$CommunicationConvention.
Each instance of this collection is a generative system of
signs for transmitting information. These signs are normally
conventional and arbitrary in nature, though the case of
body language is a (borderline) exception to this. The
reality of any given language consists in its being
interpretable by some community (usually human -- cf.
#$HumanLanguage). This is not quite true of
#$ComputerLanguages, however such languages are only
possible insofar as some kind of automation of the process
of interpretation (by computers) has been effected. In the
case of #$DeadLanguages,
the community may not longer exist (although even if no-one
can _speak_ such languages any longer,
currently-interpretable texts often remain, cf., for
example, #$AtticGreekDialect). Languages are most often
spoken, but not always (cf. #$SignLanguage). It is also
worth noting that not every system of signs is a language; a
certain richness of possible expression is required. Thus
#$MorseCode, for example, though a #$CommunicationConvention,
is not an instance of #$Language.
Finally, this collection is not intended to cover the
special vocabulary and usages of a scientific, professional
or other group, or a characteristic style of speech or
writing (e.g. 'Shakespearean language').
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direct instance of:
#$ObjectType
direct specialization of:
#$CommunicationConvention
direct generalization of: #$HumanLanguage #$NaturalLanguage
#$NaturalLanguage natural languages
A specialization of #$Language. Each
instance of #$NaturalLanguage
is a language which is used for human communication, and
which has evolved naturally. (It is disjoint with
#$ConstructedLanguage.) Instances thus include dead
languages such as Ancient Greek and Latin, but concocted
languages such as Esperanto are not included.
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direct instance of:
#$ObjectType
direct specialization of: #$HumanLanguage
direct generalization of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$DeadLanguage
#$LivingLanguage living languages
A specialization of #$NaturalLanguage.
An instance of #$NaturalLanguage
is an instance of #$LivingLanguage
just in case it has at least one extant native speaker.
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direct instance of: #$LanguageGroupingType
direct specialization of:
#$NaturalLanguage
#$DeadLanguage dead languages
A specialization of #$NaturalLanguage.
Each instance of #$DeadLanguage
is a natural language that is no longer spoken as a native
language (though written texts may survive and continue to
be interpretable -- as is the case with #$LatinLanguage).
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direct instance of: #$LanguageGroupingType
direct specialization of:
#$NaturalLanguage
#$SanskritLanguage Sanskrit
An instance of #$Indo-IranianLanguageFamily. #$SanskritLanguage
was originally spoken in the Indic area and is now a dead
language. Most of the sacred literature of the Hindus is
written in the #$SanskritLanguage.
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direct instance of:
#$DeadLanguage
#$Individual
#$EnglishLanguage the
English language
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The Germanic Language native to England, now spoken
in the United Kingdom, the United States, and many other countries.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$SpanishLanguage the
Spanish language
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The indigenous language of #$Spain and,
secondarily, most of Central and South America
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$FrenchLanguage the
French language
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The Romance language which is the primary language
spoken in #$France.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$GermanLanguage the
German language
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
In its standard version, the dominant form of High German.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$MandarinChineseLanguage Mandarin Chinese
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
One of the major languages spoken in China; also
the official language.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$HindiLanguage Hindi
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
Language spoken in the Indic area.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$BengaliLanguage Bangala
An instance of #$LivingLanguage.
#$BengaliLanguage
is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by persons in Bangladesh
and India.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$MalayIndonesianLanguage the
Indonesian language
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
A Malayan language spoken in Indonesia.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$JapaneseLanguage the
Japanese language
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The language of the people of #$Japan.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$PortugueseLanguage the
Portuguese language
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
Indigenous language of #$Portugal and #$Brazil.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$RussianLanguage the
Russian language
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
Dominant language of #$Russia.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$ArabicLanguage Arabic
An instance of both #$LivingLanguage
and #$SemiticLanguageFamily. The #$ArabicLanguage
is spoken by a large number of people in North Africa, the
Arabian Peninsula, and the Middle East.
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direct instance of:
#$LivingLanguage
#$Individual
#$AbstractProgrammingLanguage programming languages
A specialization of #$ComputerLanguage, #$AbstractProgrammingLanguage
is the collection of languages invented for the purpose of
composing computer programs (i.e., instances of #$ComputerProgram-CW),
as opposed to merely facilitating interaction between pieces
of software or indicating how to represent pieces of text.
Thus, #$ComputerLanguages such as #$Lisp are instances of #$AbstractProgrammingLanguage,
whereas #$ComputerLanguages such as
#$HypertextMarkupLanguage are not.
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direct instance of:
#$ConventionalClassificationType
direct specialization of: #$ComputerLanguage
#$orthography orthography
(intangible object relating predicate) (intangible
object describing predicate) (extensional
representation predicate)
(#$orthography
LANG WRIT) means that the #$WritingSystem WRIT is the usual
mode of writing used to encode the #$Language LANG;
that is, WRIT is used by most of the people who customarily
engage in writing LANG. For instance, (#$orthography
#$RajasthaniLanguage #$DevanagariWriting).
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direct instance of:
#$IntangibleObjectRelatingPredicate #$BinaryPredicate
#$knowsCommConvention knows
comm convention
A #$MentalSlot that relates agents to communucation
conventions that they are able to use. (#$knowsCommConvention
AGENT CONV) means that AGENT knows the #$CommunicationConvention
CONV and can use it to encode or decode information.
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direct instance of: #$MentalSlot
direct specialization of:
#$knowsAbout
#$usesCommConventionForInfo uses
comm convention for info
A ternary predicate, each usage of which relates an
instance of #$AbstractInformationalThing,
an instance of #$CommunicationConvention
and an instance of #$InformationBearingThing.
(#$usesCommConventionForInfo
INFO CC IBT) means that the information-bearing thing IBT
contains the information INFO, and INFO was encoded using
the convention CC. This predicate might be used, for
instance, to assert that a particular #$GraveMarker conveys
the information that a certain individual is buried beneath
it in #$RunicWriting. INFO need not be propositional,
however. See also the binary predicate
#$usesCommunicationConvention and the ternary predicate
#$usesCommunicationConventionForWork (which relates an
#$InformationStore, a #$CommunicationConvention
and a #$ConceptualWork).
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direct instance of: #$TernaryPredicate
#$languageSpoken language spoken
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
(#$languageSpoken
AGENT NATLANG) means that the #$IntelligentAgent
AGENT speaks the natural human language NATLANG at least
somewhat fluently. The language must be speakable by humans,
as are English, Latin, or Japanese, but not LISP, C or
LINCOS. See also #$NaturalLanguage.
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direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate
direct specialization of:
#$knowsAbout
#$knowsCommConvention
#$languagesSpokenHere languages
spoken here
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
(#$languagesSpokenHere
REG LANG) means that LANG is a language spoken in
geographical region REG.
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direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate
#$nationalLanguage national language
(#$nationalLanguage
NAT LANG) means that LANG is officially recognized by the
political region NAT as a national language. A country may
have more than one #$nationalLanguage.
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direct instance of: #$IntangibleObjectPredicate
#$BinaryPredicate
direct specialization of:
#$languagesSpokenHere
#$nativeLanguage native language
(#$nativeLanguage
PERSON LANG) means that the #$Person PERSON is
fluent in the #$NaturalLanguage
LANG, and that LANG was (one of the) first language(s)
spoken by PERSON. The #$arg2Format
for this predicate is #$SetTheFormat,
to cover cases in which a person has two or more first
languages (as might be the case when a child is raised in a
bilingual household).
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direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate
direct specialization of:
#$languageSpoken
#$LinguisticObject linguistic objects
A specialization of #$AbstractInformationalThing.
Each instance of #$LinguisticObject
is an intangible object that is part of some language or
other, in a broad sense of part whereby #$LinguisticObject's
specializations include such diverse collections as #$Title, #$WordSense,
#$SententialConstituent, #$NonlexicalLinguisticObject,
and #$LinguisticAttribute.
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direct instance of:
#$LinguisticObjectType
direct specialization of:
#$AbstractInformationalThing
direct generalization of: #$Sentence
#$ProperNamePredicate-General #$LexicalItem
#$Title #$NonlexicalLinguisticObject
#$SententialConstituent #$ELSentence-Assertible
#$Phoneme #$NLWord-Phonological #$LinguisticRuleElement
#$LinguisticRule #$LispObject
#$LinguisticObjectType linguistic
object types
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**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
A collection of collections. Each instance of #$LinguisticObjectType
is a specialization of #$LinguisticObject (q.v.).
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direct instance of: #$SecondOrderCollection
#$AtemporalNecessarilyEssentialCollectionType
direct specialization of:
#$ObjectType
direct generalization of: #$CompositeDataType
#$ObjectReferenceDataType #$DefinedDataType
#$ComputerDataType #$AffixCategory
#$LexicalWordTypeByLanguage #$LexicalWordType
#$NLPhraseType #$DerivationalAffixByResultPOSCategory
#$DerivationalAffixByBasePOSCategory
#$SententialConstituentType #$PrefixCategory #$SpeechPart
#$LexicalItem lexical items
A subcollection of #$LinguisticObject
(q.v.). #$LexicalItem
is the collection of linguistic objects that are part of the
lexicon of some natural language or other. Instances of #$LexicalItem
include words as well as constituents of words, such as
affixes (see #$LexicalWord,
#$WordConstituent, and #$LexicalAffix).
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direct instance of:
#$LinguisticObjectType
direct specialization of:
#$LinguisticObject #$AbstractInformationStructure
direct generalization of:
#$LexicalWord
#$WordConstituent #$BaseWordForm
#$LexicalWord words
A subcollection of #$LexicalItem.
#$LexicalWord
is the collection of all natural language words. A lexical
word is a free morpheme: it can appear in a phrase without
being bound to (i.e. concatenated with) another lexical
item. (Cf. #$LexicalAffix.) Note that different inflectional
forms of a given word do not constitute distinct lexical
words. Instances of #$LexicalWord
include #$Aluminum-TheWord, #$Confetti-TheWord,
#$To-TheWord, #$Hang-Glide-MWW.
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direct instance of: #$LexicalWordType
direct specialization of: #$BaseWordForm
direct generalization of: #$InherentlyVulgarWord
#$Name #$EnglishWord
#$SimpleWord #$ComplexWord
#$EnglishWord English words
A subcollection of #$LexicalWord.
Each instance of #$EnglishWord
is a lexical word of the English language. Note that
different inflectional forms of a given word do not count as
different lexical words; for example, #$Eat-TheWord
encompasses the strings `eat', `eats', `eating', and `ate'.
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direct instance of: #$LexicalWordTypeByLanguage
direct specialization of:
#$LexicalWord
#$NonlexicalLinguisticObject nonlexical
linguistic objects
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of linguistic objects which are not
morphemes, but which nonetheless make up part of a language
system; e.g., the parts of speech.
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direct instance of:
#$LinguisticObjectType
direct specialization of:
#$LinguisticObject
direct generalization of: #$SubcategorizationFrame
Some Example Parts Of Speech
#$posForms pos forms
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The predicate #$posForms is used
to indicate the different parts of speech that a particular
English word has associated with it. (#$posForms WORD
POS) means that the #$EnglishWord
WORD has a form that can serve as the #$SpeechPart POS.
For example, #$Dot-TheWord has forms for both #$SimpleNoun
and #$Verb. Forms of
a word used for different parts of speech may or may not
differ from each other in sound and/or spelling. To find
out, or to specify, the string that represents a particular
POS form of a specific word, use #$partOfSpeech.
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direct instance of: #$NLSyntacticPredicate
#$BinaryPredicate
#$SpeechPart parts
of speech
The collection of all parts of speech -- a
specialization of #$LinguisticObjectType.
Instances of #$SpeechPart
include #$Preposition,
#$Adverb, #$CountNoun, #$Determiner, #$QuantifyingIndexical,
#$Punctuation-SP,
#$Pronoun).
To link a specific word with the parts of speech for which
it has forms, see #$posForms; e.g.,
#$You-TheWord has a #$Pronoun form,
#$And-TheWord has a #$CoordinatingConjunction
form, #$Hit-TheWord has both #$CountNoun and #$Verb forms.
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direct instance of: #$SecondOrderCollection
#$AtemporalNecessarilyEssentialCollectionType
direct specialization of:
#$TermPhrasesConstraint #$LinguisticObjectType
#$CountNoun count nouns
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all simple nouns, also called
common nouns. Simple nouns can typically be preceded by a
determiner, and in English they inflect for number. These
nouns, unlike mass nouns, are countable. Example: 'dog'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$CountNoun-Generic
direct generalization of: #$CountNoun-Neuter
#$CountNoun-Masculine #$CountNoun-Feminine #$Number-SP
#$MassNoun common
mass nouns
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all mass nouns. Mass nouns are
syntactically singular, and often they denote stufflike
things. Example: 'water'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$MassNoun-Generic
#$AgentiveNoun agentive nouns
A specialization of #$DeVerbalNoun. Each instance
of #$AgentiveNoun
is a noun in the agentive form. Agentive nouns usually
denote the `doer' or `performer' of some action, and often
end in `-er' or `-or'. Example: `runner'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$DeVerbalNoun
#$ProperCountNoun proper
count nouns
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all proper count nouns. Proper
nouns are usually capitalized, and they usually denote some
particular person, place, or thing. Many proper nouns cannot
be preceded by a determiner, and many have no plural form.
Example: `Dallas'. Although one might think that names for
languages e.g. ``Cherokee'' are #$ProperCountNouns,
they are actually #$MassNouns. One
test is to see if you can ``too much X'' or ``a lot of X''
without a distinct plural form. For example ``too much
Crest'' vs *``too much Q-tips'' and ``a lot of Coke'' vs
*``a lot of Q-tip'' suggest that ``crest'' and ``coke'' are
mass nouns, whereas ``Q-tip'' is a count noun.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$CountNoun-Generic #$ProperNoun
#$ProperMassNoun proper
mass nouns
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all proper mass nouns. Proper
mass nouns are usually capitalized.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$MassNoun-Generic #$ProperNoun
#$Pronoun pronouns
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all pronouns. Pronouns are
indexicals which can replace nouns. Example: `she'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$ClosedClassWord
direct generalization of: #$IndefinitePronoun
#$ExpletivePronoun #$Number-SP #$ReciprocalPronoun
#$PossessivePronoun-Post
#$WHPronoun
#$ReflexivePronoun
#$ObjectPronoun
#$SubjectPronoun
#$PossessivePronoun
#$Verb verbs
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all verbs. Verbs usually denote
events, states, or processes. Verbs can be conjugated.
Example: `eat'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$OpenClassWord
direct generalization of: #$AuxVerb #$MainVerb
#$DenominalVerb #$DeAdjectivalVerb
#$Adjective adjectives
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collecton of all adjectives. Adjectives are
words which can modify nouns. Many adjectives have
comparative and superlative forms. Example: `red'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$OpenClassWord
direct generalization of: #$DeverbalAdjective
#$DeAdjectivalAdjective #$DenominalAdjective
#$NongradableAdjective
#$Adverb adverbs
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all adverbs. Adverbs are words
which can modify adverbs, verbs, or adjectives. Many adverbs
are morphologically derived from adjectives. Example: `slowly'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$NLWordForm
direct generalization of:
#$WHAdverb #$ConjunctAdverb
#$DenominalAdverb #$DeAdjectivalAdverb
#$Modal modal verbs
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all modal auxiliary verbs. Modals
have only tensed forms, do not inflect for person and
number, and can take contracted negation. Example: `should'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$AuxVerb
#$Preposition prepositions
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
The collection of all prepositions. Prepositions
are function words which usually take a noun phrase
complement. They usually express temporal, spatial, or other
relations. Example: `at'.
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direct instance of:
#$SpeechPart
direct specialization of: #$ClosedClassWord
direct generalization of:
#$Preposition-Of
Examples Of Predicates Indicating Syntactic Properties Of
#$singular singular
**COMMENT NOT REVIEWED**
**GAFs NOT REVIEWED**
(#$singular WORD
STRING) means that STRING is the singular noun form of WORD.
For example, the #$singular form of
#$Hit-TheWord is `hit'.
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direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$singular-Generic
#$simpleNounStrings
#$plural plural
(#$plural
WORD STRING) means that the #$CharacterString
STRING is the plural noun form of the #$LexicalWord
WORD. For example, the #$plural form of
#$Hit-TheWord is `hits', and the plural form of
#$Goose-TheWord is `geese'. Note that this is the plural
form corresponding to the #$CountNoun part
of speech. See also #$pnPlural for #$ProperCountNoun
forms, and #$agentive-Pl
for #$AgentiveNoun forms.
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direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$plural-Generic
#$simpleNounStrings
#$massNumber mass
number (speech part predicate) (language describing
predicate) (intangible object describing predicate)
(#$massNumber
WORD STRING) means that STRING is the mass noun form of
WORD. For example, paper is the mass noun form of #$Paper-TheWord.
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direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$massNumber-Generic
#$infinitive infinitive
This predicate relates #$LexicalWords
(q.v.) to their corresponding infinitive verb forms. (#$infinitive
WORD STRING) means that STRING is an infinitive verb form of
WORD. But note that for the sake of convenience STRING does
_not_ include the marker `to' that is commonly given at the
beginning of an (English) infinitive. For example, #$infinitive
relates #$Hit-TheWord simply to the string `hit' (rather
than `to hit'). Note also that, in the Knowledge Base (KB),
the closed atomic sentences (i.e. GAF s) built with #$infinitive
typically have #$SubLStrings (q.v.) as their second
arguments, as indicated by a surrounding pair of
double-quotation marks. So the above example actually
appears in the KB as `(#$infinitive #$Hit-TheWord hit )'.
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direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$untensed
#$pastTense-Universal past
tense - universal
(#$pastTense-Universal
WORD STRING) means that STRING is the past tense verb form
of WORD. The regular past tense form is formed from the
infinitive verb form with an `-ed' suffix. Since regular
forms are generated by the morphology component, verbs in
the Cyc lexicon should have a #$pastTense-Universal
entry only if they are irregular. Regular example: `helped'.
Irregular example: `ate'.
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direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$perfective-Generic
#$perfect perfect
(#$perfect WORD
STRING) means that STRING is the perfect verb form (also
known as the past participle) of WORD. The regular perfect
verb form is often the same as the past tense verb form.
Verbs in the Cyc lexicon should have a #$perfect entry only
if they are irregular, since regular forms are generated by
the morphology component. Regular example: `helped'.
Irregular example: `eaten'.
guid: bd62ff40-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$untensed
#$gerund gerund
A #$SpeechPartPredicate (q.v.) and a specialization
of #$massNumber-Generic. (#$gerund WORD
STRING) means that STRING is the gerund form of WORD. The
regular gerund is formed from the infinitive verb form with
an `ing' suffix. Verbs in the Cyc lexicon will have a #$gerund entry only
if they are irregular. Regular forms are generated by the
morphology component.
guid: bd67b170-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
direct specialization of: #$massNumber-Generic
#$untensed
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